Metaphors of Writing for Deliberate Practice

Writing as a foreign language

From the perspective of a novice writer, writing is effectively a foreign language [ref Jim Miller, genre research]. The conventions and structures of the written language often effectively constitute a different language, not only at the level of vocabulary or syntax but even at the level of type [ref]. For instance, the type of nominalisation common in academic and bureaucratic language is reminiscent of the difference between incorporating and non-incorporating languages [ref Haspelmath].

This is further underscored when we realise that, it is possible for non-native speakers to write quite fluently in an academic register without being able to demonstrate anywhere near the level of idiomatic fluency in daily conversation.

The main difference between writing and learning a foreign language is that the native speaker learning to produce written language is not building their linguistic representations from scratch and can therefore draw on existing chunks of articulation. However, as Dabrowska demonstrated [ref], there are clear limits to how native speakers can deal with written language of increasing complexity. Learning to write clearly requires reading to construct quite different chunks of language than learning to speak. For many writers, this happens naturally through repetition but others require more targeted practice.

What this means for writing is that the identification of mental representations will be similar to that when learning a foreign language. And indeed most academic writing guides focus on this almost to the exclusion of anything else. They provide lists of words, phrases and constructions to be acquired very much like a foreign language [ref - examples]. Equally, Academic English courses are often provided by the Language departments under the heading of EAP (English for Academic Purposes).

However, the question that remains largely unaddressed in writing, is the question of the communicative situation. The biggest challenge in foreign language instruction is to ensure that the learner can deploy the learned constructions at the moment of communication. This is both easier and harder with writing. Writing clearly does not impose the sort of time pressure with its concomitant imposition on the working memory. Unlike speaking, writing is not a irreversibly linear process. Indeed, it is often said that writing is in large part editing and rewriting.

At the same time, however, writing requires working with much larger chunks and the development of many layers of mental representations. This makes it easy for the writing tutor to inadvertently skip levels of articulation, leaving the student behind in their needs. This seems to happen to weaker students in the PROCESS approach [ref - systematic review].

Writing as translation

"we have all had the experience of uttering or writing a sentence, then stopping and realizing that it wasn't exactly what we meant to say. To have that feeling, there has to be a difference in what we meant to say from what we said." (Steven Pinker, Language Instinct)

Writing is clearly more than just putting the down the contents of one's thoughts on paper. Writers report not fully realizing what it was that they meant until it was written down. And rereading ones own writing often causes writers a sense of disconnect, not dissimilar to first hearing their speech on a recording. Fluent writing, requires that a writer develops mental representations (dual constructions) that constitute pairs of patterns of thought and patterns of written expression.

In this sense, writing is a kind of translation. To explore the metaphor further, we can imagine two languages: "mentalese" and "writtenese" between which the writer has to learn to translate. As any translator knows, translation is not a matter of finding one-to-one correspondences between words but rather equivalents between entire chunks of expression. Not everything is equally amenable to translation. Idioms, cultural allusions, complex imagery, puns are just a few of the types of constructions that can only ever be translated in part. The translator has to constantly make choices between being faithful to the structure of the author's language or to the author's intention. Both require a certain degree of interpretation.

But perhaps the most difficult challenge in translation is when the structure of one language requires the writer to commit to a meaning which the other language leaves unexpressed. In that case, the translator literally has to fill in gaps and make commitments to meaning which the original author did not have to do. This can even reveal inconsistencies and gaps in the original text. This could happen even in the most innocuous seeming constructions. For instance, the definition of the level A1 in the Common European Frame of Reference for languages (CEFR) begins: "Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions". Yet, the construction "understand and use" needs to be broken up into multiple clauses in some languages which may completely change the emphasis.

This is clearly very clearly reminiscent of the idea that writing is filling in gaps in ones thought. But at the same time some writers report that they find it relatively easy to write down the contents of their own thought. Some do it by rehearsing what they will write before setting it down, some may visualise the text as written first. Yet, others train their thought processes to more closely hew to what is written. But some adjustment is required.

This is one aspect of writing least susceptible to explicit instruction because it is impossible to give examples of the contents of somebody's mind without these having been processed through writing. However, there are parallels such as those between written and spoken language or two different languages. This can then help the student identify possible mental representations which can then be developed through deliberate practice.

Thomas Basboll has also been exploring the related metaphor of writing as drawing, where the would be artist has to learn to perceive the world in a new way and pay attention to its aspects that will contribute to a visually communicative representation. This is reminiscent of the way in which translator must build up a reservoir of parallelisms between the two languages.

Writing as a physical activity

Writing is without question a literal physical activity. It requires not just mental but also physical exertion. Handwriting or typing while seated or standing, require physical coordination as well as a certain degree of stamina. Even dictation has a physical component. But writing is also reminiscent of physical activity in other ways. It takes place over time in a physical space, it requires tools and equipment. It also requires focus and endurance.

Each of these elements of the writing process place demands on the working memory to navigate successfully. At the moment of writing, the novice writer may struggle with being able to write in large enough chunks because they can only ever operationalise small chunks of writing due to the working memory being filled with the process of mechanics of writing. They are writing in words rather than sentences or paragraphs and the idea of generating coherent ideas through writing completely eludes them.

This is not dissimilar to novice runners who can only ever focus on the next minute or two of running in terms of planning their effort. Their run is articulated into much smaller segments than that of an expert runner. This has led to the development of techniques such as the famous Couch to 5K (C25K) which can transform a non-runner into a competent runner capable of running five kilometers in between 30 and 45 minutes. The process takes about 8-12 weeks and requires and begins with runs of 90 seconds, slowly building up to larger chunks.

This can serve as a model for the development of writing in ever increasing units. Going from phrases to sentences and paragraphs and ultimately to entire essays. We need to start with the acknowledgement that for the novice writer, the essay looms as much as the five-kilometer distance does for the non-runner. While the articulation of writing is in may ways more complex than that of running, the novice writer typically does not start without any linguistic background. It is not therefore inconceivable that a period similar to that of C25K could help a reluctant writer achieve greater fluency and stamina even while many aspects of writing expertise remain to be addressed through further practice.

Of course, another aspect of practice for physical activity is in person coaching where the coach gives feedback in real time. This seems much less applicable but at least one such framework exists:

During one of these “writing with the teacher present” classes, a student said that these classes were more like athletic practice than class. We were practicing while the coach was around to break steps down into smaller and smaller elements and to help us learn the skills “in real time.”

More below.

Writing as a musical performance

The act of writing is both analogous and disanalogous to music. The disanalogy is clear. Music performance is linear and its success depends on it being performed without technical flaws and with appropriate expressiveness without interruption. Writing, on the other hand, is circular requiring a number of recursive steps at every stage. Writing, rewriting, editing and reediting are commonly recognised as crucial elements of the writing process.

However, this is to overlook the fact, that a certain level of fluency is required in writing. The competent writer will indeed spend a significant amount of time redrafting, however, what matters is at which level of articulation the drafts and redrafts take place. When we observe the extremely dysfluent writer, for instance, young writers with dyslexia [ref], we see that the lack of fluency in constructing larger chunks prevents them from expressing their intentions. Writing then becomes an exercise in frutration.

The skills at all levels of articulation required for musical performance are analogous to those necessary for the composition of a viable draft, that can then be subject to rewriting and editing. Many elite musical performers have described the process of preparation for the performance of a new difficult piece. And their aim is universally to identify repeated patterns organised in large chunks that enable them to "think" ahead or "reason" about the piece, recover from stumbles and focus on expressiveness over the technical aspects.

However, to achieve this level of expressive fluency, the musical performer has to spend a significant amount of time on focused repetition of patterns at lower levels of articulation. Practicing scales and arpeggios to "get a feel" for a particular key or chord progression on their instrument.

Luckily, the amount of focused repetition is probably significantly lower for the novice writer because of the pre-existing mental representations that can be developed further. However, no empirical data on the difference exists.

Unlike musical performers, who, by this stage, have been pre-selected for their aptitude, almost anybody is expected to be able to write. It is therefore important to think about other sources of continued dysfluencies despite focused repetition These could be as simple as lack of typing skills or as complex as dyslexia. However, the writer is much freer in their mode of expression and free to choose dictation or handwriting as appropriate.

Writing as a skill subject to multiple articulation

Writing is a skill. And any skill can be improved. Simply doing more of it will help. However, there is a point after which mere repetition does not help. In fact, many skills tend to atrophy and may even slightly decrease with pure repetition without any goal for improvement. [ref Medical diagnosticians]

Skills are not unitary monadic entities. They are complex, multifaceted, task and context-embedded and multiply articulated. It is this multiple articulation that will serve as a departure point here for integrating deliberate practice into the writing process. The performance of any task is happening at multiple levels of articulation. The notion of articulation comes from the linguistic concept of dual articulation of language. While we are trying to articulate ideas when we speak, we also have to articulate the sounds that make up the words we are using. And we further have to shape the words into the right forms and the sentences into the right sequences. Which is also a form articulation. But speech would be impossible if we had to pay conscious attention to every aspect of its production. And that's why when we say we are trying to articulate an idea, we do not mean any of the mechanical components of producing language.

The same notion of articulation applies to any skill, however. A runner does not have to nor can she pay attention to every aspect of her motion. She is trying to achieve a task distance, speed or merely exercise and articulates the completion of the task through running. But she does not articulate the run. A typist may have the task of speed, accuracy or simply transmission of knowledge. She will not focus on every aspect of the task.

Even more complex skills such as driving or even medical diagnostics are subject to this multiple articulation. In order to achieve, express or articulate the task a driver or diagnostician must perform a myriad of other actions which are often further articulated. Yet, paying heed to all or any one of them would simply overwhelm the capacity of their working memory and preclude them from achieving the main goal. [cf. Miller and magical number 7]

The notion of multiple articulation applies even more directly to the process of writing. The writer's main goal is not to just write words down. It is to articulate ideas in such a way that will faithfully represent the writer's ideas and that will result in an understanding by the reader. Create images in the reader's mind [cf. Pinker]. But in order to achieve that ultimate articulation, multiple other articulations must happen. The writer must adopt a certain physical posture and perform movements with their fingers. She must choose, shape, and arrange words. Those words require spelling. The choice of words and their arrangement will be subject to genre, style and register. It is only by being able to articulate all of these that the writer can achieve her task. That of articulating her ideas.